Sources of Public Authority and Political Power
Even though Nigeria has been an independent nation since 1960, neither it's leaders nor it's citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how. This dilemma is known as the "national question" of how the country should be governed, or even if Nigeria should remain as one nation.
Constitutionalism
-Nigeria's first constitution was written in 1914, but since then, eight more constitutions have been written, with the last one introduced in 1999 and heavily altered since.
-Nigerian constitutions represent attempts to establish a basic blueprint for the operation of the government, but none have lasted for any length of time. As a result, constitutionalism, or the acceptance of a constitution as a dining set of principles, has eluded Nigeria.
-Military and civilian leaders alike have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles, or to toss out older constitutions with those more to their liking. Without constitutionalism, the national question has been much harder to answer.
-Nigerian constitutions represent attempts to establish a basic blueprint for the operation of the government, but none have lasted for any length of time. As a result, constitutionalism, or the acceptance of a constitution as a dining set of principles, has eluded Nigeria.
-Military and civilian leaders alike have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles, or to toss out older constitutions with those more to their liking. Without constitutionalism, the national question has been much harder to answer.
Legitimacy
-Being a very young country, Nigeria has struggled to maintain legitimacy.
-The legitimacy of the Nigerian government is currently at a low, with many citizens having little or no trust in their leader’s abilities' to run an efficient or trustworthy state.
-Part of the problem lies in the current political impulses originating from contradictory influences from Nigeria's past.
Since independence was granted in 1960, Nigerian leaders have used military might to enforce its tentative, personalized authority. The military strongmen generally disregarded rule of law. The corruption associated with General Ibrahim Babangida, who ruled from 1985 to 1993, and General Sani Abacha (1993-1998) alienated citizens even further. Many people question why they should pay taxes when their hard-earned money went straight to the generals bank accounts.
-Ironically, the military is one of the few truly national organizations in Nigeria, so despite the problems that it has posed for democracy, it is also a source of stability in an unstable country.
-An important source of legitimacy in the North has been sharia, especially since the fall of military rule in 1999, and in many areas of the North it became public law after 1999. In some areas, Hisbah, a police force charged with enforcing Islamic morality, has searched the streets for violators, and has taken them to Islamic court to face sentences like death by public stoning. It now appears that the application of Islamic law is returning to the role that it has long had – a compromise between the dictates of faith and the realities of modern life in Nigeria.
-The legitimacy of the Nigerian government is currently at a low, with many citizens having little or no trust in their leader’s abilities' to run an efficient or trustworthy state.
-Part of the problem lies in the current political impulses originating from contradictory influences from Nigeria's past.
Since independence was granted in 1960, Nigerian leaders have used military might to enforce its tentative, personalized authority. The military strongmen generally disregarded rule of law. The corruption associated with General Ibrahim Babangida, who ruled from 1985 to 1993, and General Sani Abacha (1993-1998) alienated citizens even further. Many people question why they should pay taxes when their hard-earned money went straight to the generals bank accounts.
-Ironically, the military is one of the few truly national organizations in Nigeria, so despite the problems that it has posed for democracy, it is also a source of stability in an unstable country.
-An important source of legitimacy in the North has been sharia, especially since the fall of military rule in 1999, and in many areas of the North it became public law after 1999. In some areas, Hisbah, a police force charged with enforcing Islamic morality, has searched the streets for violators, and has taken them to Islamic court to face sentences like death by public stoning. It now appears that the application of Islamic law is returning to the role that it has long had – a compromise between the dictates of faith and the realities of modern life in Nigeria.
Political Traditions
Nigerian political traditions run deep and long. Kingdoms appeared as early as 800 C.E., and historical influences may be divided into three eras: the pre-colonial era, the colonial era, and the era since independence
The Pre-colonial Era (800-1860)
Influences from this Era include:
Trade connections – the Niger River and access to the ocean allowed contact and trade with other civilizations.
The influence of Islam – Trade with the North put early Hausa and other groups in contact with Arabic education and Islam, which gradually replaced traditional customs and religions, especially among the elite.
Kinship-based politics – Among the southern people, villages were often composed of extended families, and their leaders conducted the business through kinship ties.
Complex political identities – The contrast between centralize state and local governments are far from clear-cut.
Democratic impulses – Among the Yoruba and Igbo especially, the principle of accountability was well accepted during the pre-colonial era. Rulers were expected to seek advice and to govern in the interest of the people. If they did not, they were often removed from their positions. Leaders were also seen as representatives of the people, and they were responsible for the good of the community not just their own welfare.
Trade connections – the Niger River and access to the ocean allowed contact and trade with other civilizations.
The influence of Islam – Trade with the North put early Hausa and other groups in contact with Arabic education and Islam, which gradually replaced traditional customs and religions, especially among the elite.
Kinship-based politics – Among the southern people, villages were often composed of extended families, and their leaders conducted the business through kinship ties.
Complex political identities – The contrast between centralize state and local governments are far from clear-cut.
Democratic impulses – Among the Yoruba and Igbo especially, the principle of accountability was well accepted during the pre-colonial era. Rulers were expected to seek advice and to govern in the interest of the people. If they did not, they were often removed from their positions. Leaders were also seen as representatives of the people, and they were responsible for the good of the community not just their own welfare.
The Colonial Era (1860-1960)
-Colonialism came much later to Africa than many other parts of the world, but its impact is no less important. Nigeria only broke with its colonial past in the 1960s. As a result, Nigeria has had much less time to develop a national identity and political stability.
The British planted influences which contradicted the democratic pattern set in place during the precolonial era:
Authority authoritarian rule – The British left in charge chiefs and other natives to protect British economic interest. This new pattern resulted in the loosening of rulers' responsibility to the people.
The interventionist state – The colonialist train the chief operated government in order to reach economic goals because no checks existed in Nigeria this practice at in-place the expectation the citizenship passively except the actions of their rulers.
Individualism – Capitalism the Western political thought emphasizes the importance of the individual however in Nigeria it released a tendency for chiefs to think about the personal benefits of government, rather than the good of the whole community.
Christianity – The British brought their religion with them, and it's spread throughout the south and west, the areas where the influence the strongest.
Intensification of politics – During the colonial era, ethnic identities both broadened and intensified into three groups: the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba.
The British planted influences which contradicted the democratic pattern set in place during the precolonial era:
Authority authoritarian rule – The British left in charge chiefs and other natives to protect British economic interest. This new pattern resulted in the loosening of rulers' responsibility to the people.
The interventionist state – The colonialist train the chief operated government in order to reach economic goals because no checks existed in Nigeria this practice at in-place the expectation the citizenship passively except the actions of their rulers.
Individualism – Capitalism the Western political thought emphasizes the importance of the individual however in Nigeria it released a tendency for chiefs to think about the personal benefits of government, rather than the good of the whole community.
Christianity – The British brought their religion with them, and it's spread throughout the south and west, the areas where the influence the strongest.
Intensification of politics – During the colonial era, ethnic identities both broadened and intensified into three groups: the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba.
The Era Since Independence (1962– Present)
Traditions established during this era include:
-Parliamentary style government replaced by a presidential system: ethnic divisions caused Nigeria to switch to a presidential system in 1979, with the popularly elected president, a separate legislature, and independent judiciary. However, the latter two branches have not consistently checked the power of the president.
-Intensification of ethnic conflict: After Independence, the house the Hausa-Fulani dominated the parliamentary government by nature of their large population. To ensure a majority they formed a coalition with the Igbo people of the south east which caused resistance among the Yoruba.
-Military rule: The first military ruler justified his authority by announcing his intentions to end violence and stop political corruption. He was killed in a coup by a second general, which sparked the Igbo to fight for independence for their land, the Biafra. The Biafran Civil War raged on from 1967-1970, creating more violence and ethnic conflict in Nigeria.
-Personalized rule/corruption: Rulers no longer look out for the interest of the people. Individualism translated into rule for gain, and the military regimes of the modern era generally have been characterized by greed and corruption.
-Federalism: In an attempt to appease ethnic tensions yet still remain in one country, Nigerian leaders set up a federal system, with some powers being delegated to state and local governments. However, the state remained unitary with all power centered in the capital city of Abuja.
-Economic dependence on oil: Abundant oil has caused other sectors of the economy to be ignored, making Nigeria's economic survival based almost solely on oil. When international markets fall, so does Nigeria's economy.
-Parliamentary style government replaced by a presidential system: ethnic divisions caused Nigeria to switch to a presidential system in 1979, with the popularly elected president, a separate legislature, and independent judiciary. However, the latter two branches have not consistently checked the power of the president.
-Intensification of ethnic conflict: After Independence, the house the Hausa-Fulani dominated the parliamentary government by nature of their large population. To ensure a majority they formed a coalition with the Igbo people of the south east which caused resistance among the Yoruba.
-Military rule: The first military ruler justified his authority by announcing his intentions to end violence and stop political corruption. He was killed in a coup by a second general, which sparked the Igbo to fight for independence for their land, the Biafra. The Biafran Civil War raged on from 1967-1970, creating more violence and ethnic conflict in Nigeria.
-Personalized rule/corruption: Rulers no longer look out for the interest of the people. Individualism translated into rule for gain, and the military regimes of the modern era generally have been characterized by greed and corruption.
-Federalism: In an attempt to appease ethnic tensions yet still remain in one country, Nigerian leaders set up a federal system, with some powers being delegated to state and local governments. However, the state remained unitary with all power centered in the capital city of Abuja.
-Economic dependence on oil: Abundant oil has caused other sectors of the economy to be ignored, making Nigeria's economic survival based almost solely on oil. When international markets fall, so does Nigeria's economy.
Political Culture
Characteristics of the political culture include:
-Patron-clientelism (prebendalism): The practice of exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients is almost always accompanied by corruption. For example, in Nigeria, in exchange for their support, a president may grant to his clients a portion of the oil revenues. This practice invites corruption and it usually means that the larger society is hurt because only a few people benefit from the favors. In Nigeria, patrons are generally liked to clients by ethnicity and religion.
-State control/rich civil society: Formal and informal ethnic and religious associations, professional and labor groups, and other nongovernmental organizations have a long shaped the society.
-Tension between modernity and tradition: Values established in the pre-colonial era conflict with those established in the colonial era, creating the basis for the serious problem that Nigeria faces today.
-Religious conflict: Islam and Christianity have intensified ethnic conflict, as well as political issues. For example, Muslims generally support sharia or religious law, as a valid part of political authority. Christians, of course, disagree. As a result an ongoing debate about the role of sharia in then Nigerian state has sparked religious conflict.
-Geographic influences: Northwest – Hausa Fulani predominantly Muslim
Northeast – Kanuri primarily Muslim
Middlebelt – Mix of both Muslims and Christians and many smaller ethnic groups
Southwest – Igbo
Southeast – Yoruba
-Patron-clientelism (prebendalism): The practice of exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients is almost always accompanied by corruption. For example, in Nigeria, in exchange for their support, a president may grant to his clients a portion of the oil revenues. This practice invites corruption and it usually means that the larger society is hurt because only a few people benefit from the favors. In Nigeria, patrons are generally liked to clients by ethnicity and religion.
-State control/rich civil society: Formal and informal ethnic and religious associations, professional and labor groups, and other nongovernmental organizations have a long shaped the society.
-Tension between modernity and tradition: Values established in the pre-colonial era conflict with those established in the colonial era, creating the basis for the serious problem that Nigeria faces today.
-Religious conflict: Islam and Christianity have intensified ethnic conflict, as well as political issues. For example, Muslims generally support sharia or religious law, as a valid part of political authority. Christians, of course, disagree. As a result an ongoing debate about the role of sharia in then Nigerian state has sparked religious conflict.
-Geographic influences: Northwest – Hausa Fulani predominantly Muslim
Northeast – Kanuri primarily Muslim
Middlebelt – Mix of both Muslims and Christians and many smaller ethnic groups
Southwest – Igbo
Southeast – Yoruba